Laurie Anne Walden, DVM Cyclospora cayetanensis organisms in a stool sample. Public domain image from CDC/DPDx - Melanie Moser. Human outbreaks of diarrhea caused by cyclosporiasis have been reported across the United States this summer. Hundreds of cases have been reported in North Carolina. Most of these have been in Wake County, but some have also been reported in Mecklenburg County.
Cyclosporiasis is a human disease. This disease doesn’t affect dogs and cats, although similar intestinal infections cause diarrhea and vomiting in animals. No cases of cyclosporiasis in humans have been linked to animal transmission. Still, it’s best to practice good hand hygiene and dispose of animal waste properly; other parasites that are common in animals can infect people. Cause Cyclosporiasis is caused by infection with Cyclospora cayetanensis, a protozoan parasite. Cyclospora are types of coccidia, so they’re related to the coccidia that infect dogs, cats, and other animals. Coccidia are host specific: each species of coccidia typically infects only one host species. Humans are the host species for C cayetanensis. How Cyclosporiasis Spreads Cyclosporiasis spreads through contaminated food and water. Cyclospora organisms that are passed in human feces enter the environment, where they develop into a form that can infect other people. The organisms aren’t spread directly from person to person; they need a week or two in the environment to become infectious. The most common sources of infection are fresh vegetables and fruits. We don’t yet know all of the sources of this summer’s outbreaks. Iceberg lettuce from one supplier has been recalled so far. Signs in People
Treatment and Prevention Like coccidia infections in animals, cyclosporiasis in people is treated with antibiotics. In some people, the illness improves without treatment. The US Food and Drug Administration recommends these steps:
Precautions With Pets Seek veterinary care if your pet has diarrhea that lasts longer than a couple of days or if your pet has other signs like vomiting, belly pain, or loss of appetite. Dogs and cats are very unlikely to be infected with C cayetanensis. Pets that eat fresh produce—guinea pigs, other rodents, and reptiles, for example—are also not host species for this parasite and have not been found to be at risk of infection. However, lots of other infections cause diarrhea in animals. Animals have not been shown to transmit cyclosporiasis to people. Cyclospora organisms have been detected in the feces of dogs that swallowed the organisms, but whether these organisms can actually infect people is unclear. Animals carry many other infectious organisms that can make people sick, so use general precautions: wash hands before eating and after handling animals or their feces, pick up your dog’s stool and dispose of it properly, disinfect surfaces in contact with animal feces, and give your pets the parasite prevention products that your veterinarian recommends. For More Information
Image source: https://wwwn.cdc.gov/phil/Details.aspx?pid=7827 Laurie Anne Walden, DVM Adult New World screwworm fly. Photo by US Department of Agriculture. New World screwworm causes serious and sometimes fatal disease in animals infested with this parasite. The animals most often affected are livestock (especially cattle), horses, wildlife, and dogs, although all mammals and birds can be infested. The disease is rare in humans.
New cases have recently been identified in Texas and New Mexico, decades after the parasite was eradicated from the United States. The overall risk to animals and people in the United States is still very low. No cases have been found on the East Coast as of the date of this post. What Screwworm Is New World screwworm is not a worm. It is the larvae (maggots) of the fly Cochliomyia hominivorax. The flies lay eggs on an animal, usually in open wounds or around natural body openings. The larvae that hatch from the eggs feed on the animal’s tissue, causing painful and potentially life-threatening wounds. Other kinds of flies also lay eggs that hatch into maggots and feed on animal tissue. The difference between New World screwworm and the others is that New World screwworm feeds on living tissue. Other maggots feed on dead and decomposing tissue, performing nature’s cleanup work. How New World Screwworm Spreads This is not a contagious disease; an infested animal doesn’t spread the parasite directly to another animal. Animals become infested when C hominivorax flies lay eggs on their body. This parasite does not contaminate the food supply. New World screwworm spreads geographically when the flies migrate or when the eggs or larvae are carried to new areas. New World screwworm flies live in warm, humid regions. These flies were once found throughout the southern United States, Mexico, and Central America. They were eradicated in these areas by international collaboration to prevent the movement of infested animals and to introduce sterile flies that prevent fly reproduction. The flies still live in some Caribbean islands and parts of South America, and they have been moving northward over the past few years. Signs of Screwworm Infestation
Treatment New World screwworm is a reportable disease, meaning that veterinarians must report suspected cases so the disease can be tracked. Treatment involves removing all visible eggs and larvae, treating the bacterial infection associated with the wound, and treating the animal’s general illness (which can be serious in animals with severe infestations). For dogs and cats, some prescription antiparasite products are very effective for treating New World screwworm infestation. The US Food and Drug Administration has issued either conditional approval or emergency use authorization for three Credelio products (containing lotilaner) and two Nexgard products (containing afoxolaner) for New World screwworm treatment in dogs and cats. Other products are likely to be effective and might also receive authorization later on. What Pet Owners Should Do
For Updates and More Information
Image source: https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/cattle/ticks/screwworm/new-world-screwworm-photo-gallery Laurie Anne Walden, DVM Photo by noelle on Unsplash In cats, unlike humans, allergies don’t typically cause sneezing and runny eyes. Cats with allergies are more likely to have itching and skin disease. Some allergies in cats cause asthma and digestive tract disorders.
The most common allergies in cats are flea allergy, allergies to substances in the environment, and food allergies. Some cats have more than one kind of allergy. Flea Allergy For cats with flea allergy, even a few flea bites cause significant itching and skin disease. Signs include hair loss, broken hairs, scratches on the skin, scabs, or raised pink or red bumps. Fleas are hard to find on cats because cats remove them when they groom, so you might not actually see any fleas on a cat whose skin disease is caused by a flea allergy. The pattern of hair loss is one clue to the diagnosis; hair loss on the lower back is usually related to fleas. Because flea-related dermatitis is so common, flea treatment is standard care for cats with skin disease. Unlike many allergy triggers, fleas can be eliminated from a cat’s environment. The best type of flea prevention to use depends on the individual cat, the cat’s lifestyle and environment, and contact animals. Your veterinarian can recommend products for your own cat. It’s easier to prevent a flea infestation than to eliminate one. In general, the most reliable way to avoid flea problems is to give effective (this often means prescription) flea prevention all year round to all cats and dogs in the household. Environmental Allergies The same substances in the environment that cause allergies in people also cause allergies in cats. Some allergy triggers (like grasses and trees) are seasonal; others (like dust mites and mold spores) are present year round. In cats, environmental allergies most often cause skin problems but are also linked to asthma. Environmental allergies cause the same signs of skin disease as flea allergy. Allergies can also cause eosinophilic dermatitis, a type of inflammatory skin disease with red, scabbed, or oozy patches on the haired skin or the edges of the lips. Asthma is fairly common in cats. Asthma flares can be seasonal in cats with environmental allergies. Signs include coughing, wheezing, and open-mouth breathing or panting; emergency signs are difficulty breathing and purple or blue gums. Environmental allergy triggers typically can’t be eliminated. Cats with these allergies receive symptom relief (anti-itch medication) and treatment for the skin infections that are very common in animals with allergic skin disease. Cats with asthma need steroids, often delivered by inhaler. Immunotherapy (“allergy shots”) from a veterinary dermatologist can be used to treat environmental allergies if the exact triggers can be identified with a skin test. Food Allergies Allergies to food ingredients most often cause digestive tract problems like vomiting and diarrhea. In cats, food allergies can also cause skin disease. Vomiting and diarrhea have many possible causes, some of which are very serious, so cats with chronic (long-term) digestive tract symptoms need a full medical work-up. Food allergies can be triggered by a wide variety of proteins and carbohydrates. Simply switching the brand or flavor of cat food—or switching to a homemade diet—won’t tell you if a cat has a food allergy. The only way to diagnose a food allergy is with a diet trial, which means feeding only an elimination diet (a prescription diet formulated to eliminate possible allergy triggers) for several weeks. For cats with food allergy, symptoms greatly improve if the problem ingredient is identified and eliminated. Image source: https://unsplash.com/photos/orange-tabby-cat-on-gray-concrete-floor-bTw1Ug-Wlio Laurie Anne Walden, DVM Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in fecal flotation solution. Image from CDC. Have you ever heard that pregnant people shouldn’t handle a cat’s litter box? This is because of the risk of toxoplasmosis. World Zoonoses Day, July 6, is a great time to talk about how this disease passes from animals to people and whether pregnant people really do get a 9-month pass on cleaning the litter box.
Zoonoses are diseases that are transmitted from nonhuman animals to humans. Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic disease caused by infection with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Toxoplasmosis is one of the most common foodborne illnesses in people. The people who should be most cautious about T gondii infection are those with compromised immune systems and those who are pregnant. Toxoplasmosis in People People With Healthy Immune Systems People with healthy immune systems usually have no signs of T gondii infection and don’t know they’ve been infected. For those who develop signs, most have swollen lymph nodes or flu-like symptoms that get better on their own within a few weeks. Much less commonly, the infection can affect the eyes and cause vision loss. Whether or not the initial infection causes any signs of illness, the parasites remain in the body in a dormant state. The infected person develops immunity to T gondii. However, if the person’s immune system becomes compromised (because of chemotherapy, organ transplantation, or AIDS, for example), the T gondii organisms are reactivated and cause illness. People With Weakened Immune Systems In people with compromised immunity, toxoplasmosis affects the brain, eyes, lungs, and other organs. Either a new infection or a reactivated infection can cause seizures, confusion, and coordination problems. Fetuses Infected Before Birth A fetus won’t become infected if the mother was infected with T gondii before getting pregnant. In this case the mother already has immunity and won’t pass the infection to the unborn child (as long as she has a healthy immune system). If a mother is infected for the first time during or immediately before pregnancy, the fetus can be infected too because the mother doesn’t yet have immunity. Most people don’t know if they’ve been infected with T gondii in the past, so it’s safest for all pregnant people to take precautions to avoid infection. The consequences of infection in an unborn child can be severe. The pregnancy might end in miscarriage or stillbirth, or the fetus might develop anatomic abnormalities. More commonly, infected infants have no signs of infection when they’re born. These individuals can develop vision loss or neurologic problems years later. How People Are Infected
Toxoplasmosis in Cats Domestic cats and other felines are the only species that spread T gondii into the environment. Cats become infected after eating birds or rodents that have T gondii cysts in their bodies. Infected cats then shed T gondii oocysts (eggs) in the stool. The oocysts are not infective to other animals right away. After at least 1 day, the oocysts mature to a stage that can infect other animals. Infective oocysts can survive in the environment for years. Most infected cats don’t have any signs of illness. Cats with compromised immune systems can develop disease similar to that of humans with compromised immune systems. Identifying cats infected with T gondii is tricky. Cats shed oocysts in the stool for only a short time, so fecal tests aren’t reliable for diagnosing infection in cats. However, if a fecal test happens to show oocysts that look similar to T gondii, the cat’s owners should take precautions with the cat’s stool for a few weeks. A blood test showing that a cat has T gondii antibodies doesn’t tell us whether that cat is likely to start shedding oocysts that could put the family at risk. Precautions The CDC recommends these precautions to avoid toxoplasmosis:
Pregnant people should also take these precautions:
For More Information
Image source: https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/toxoplasmosis/index.html Laurie Anne Walden, DVM Photo by kevin turcios on Unsplash The differences between heartworm prevention products can be confusing. Some products protect pets from other parasites in addition to heartworms. Your veterinarian can recommend products for your own pet according to risk factors like your pet’s lifestyle, environment, and geographic location.
Heartworm preventives should be given all year round. If your pet’s heartworm preventive doesn’t also cover for fleas and intestinal parasites like roundworms and hookworms, your pet should receive a second product or have regular parasite tests (your veterinarian can advise you about this). Heartworm preventives labeled for dogs and cats are available in the United States only by prescription. Some products that target fleas, ticks, and intestinal parasites are prescription products; others can be sold without a prescription. If you find a flea/tick product or a dewormer for dogs or cats that can be bought without a prescription, it won’t protect your pet against heartworm infection (unless it’s being sold illegally or possibly from outside the United States). These are the parasites most often covered by parasite preventives for dogs and cats:
Heartworm Preventives New products come on the market regularly. Products within the same brand line that have different ingredients (for different parasite coverage) tend to have nearly identical names, so check labels carefully. The following is a summary of currently available heartworm preventives for dogs and cats, listed by route of administration and active ingredient. This list is from the American Heartworm Society website, which shows the product names and their parasite coverage in an easy-to-read chart. For an updated list of heartworm preventives for dogs, cats, and ferrets, please see the American Heartworm Society website: https://www.heartwormsociety.org/preventives Products for Dogs Tablets or chews given by mouth once a month:
Injectable product given every 6 or 12 months:
Topical products applied to the skin once a month:
Products for Cats Tablets or chews given by mouth once a month:
Topical products applied to the skin once a month (except Bravecto Plus):
Image source: https://unsplash.com/photos/rls2bfqYh8E Laurie Anne Walden, DVM Photo by Lucas Ludwig Pets need stool tests to screen for parasites or help find the cause of diarrhea and other digestive system problems. Collecting a stool sample at home is the least stressful option for the pet. The alternative is for someone at the veterinary clinic to use a loop to remove a little bit of stool from the rectum. This option yields a much smaller sample and can be unpleasant for the animal.
A fecal test for parasites involves mixing the stool sample in a flotation solution and either spinning it in a centrifuge or leaving it to sit in a vial for a certain amount of time. The material at the top of the solution is then removed to a microscope slide to look for parasite eggs that have floated to the surface. Sometimes a tiny bit of stool is smeared directly onto a microscope slide for examination. Fecal analysis can also include chemical tests. For all of these tests, the stool needs to be fresh and squishy enough to mix or smear. The age and condition of a stool sample affect the results. Parasite eggs can dry out or hatch in old stool. Hard, dry feces is very difficult or impossible to prepare for testing. Stool that has been sitting outdoors for a while can contain fly eggs or larvae (maggots). Liquid diarrhea that’s soaked into paper or cloth can’t be mixed in solution to test for parasites. Here’s how to collect a stool sample to get the most accurate results:
Photo by Lucas Ludwig on Unsplash Laurie Anne Walden, DVM  Photo by Madalyn Cox Ear mites are common in cats and dogs. They cause significant ear itching and inflammation and are contagious between animals.
In cats, ear mites are the most common cause of external ear disease. Ear mites affect dogs too, but external ear disease in dogs is more often caused by allergies. Ear mites (Otodectes cyanotis) are tiny parasites similar to the mites that cause mange. They live in the ears and are sometimes also found on skin elsewhere on the body. Ear mites feed on natural skin debris like ear wax. They stay on the skin surface and don’t burrow into the skin, unlike some other mites. Ear mites spread easily through close contact between animals. People are not thought to be at risk from cat and dog ear mites. It’s possible but very rare for ear mites to affect humans. Signs The signs of ear mites are similar to the signs of ear infections caused by bacteria and yeast. Animals can have ear mites without showing any symptoms, but most animals have these signs:
Diagnosis Bacterial and yeast ear infections cause signs similar to ear mites, so don’t assume that a cat or dog with itchy ears has ear mites. An animal with suspected ear mites should see a veterinarian to look for ear mites and rule out other ear problems that would need a different type of treatment. Some animals have ear mites and a bacterial or yeast ear infection at the same time. Ear mites are easiest to see with magnification, either in a sample of ear debris under a microscope or through an otoscope inserted into the ear (if the animal’s ears aren’t too painful). Sometimes the mites are visible in ear debris without magnification; they look like pinpoint white specks that move. Treatment In the past, treating ear mites meant instilling an oily liquid into the animal’s ears daily for about 3 weeks. This type of product is still available over the counter without a prescription, but don’t use an over-the-counter remedy without first taking your pet to see a veterinarian. Newer prescription products kill ear mites more quickly, some in only 1 or 2 doses, and some don’t require putting drops directly into the ears. Because ear mites are contagious, it’s best to treat all dogs and cats in the household. For More Information See these links for more information and photos of ear mites:
Photo by Madalyn Cox on Unsplash Laurie Anne Walden, DVM  Coccidia are tiny parasites that live in the intestines. Coccidia infection is common in dogs and cats, most often affecting puppies and kittens. Infection can cause severe disease and even death, especially in young animals, although some infected animals have no symptoms at all.
Coccidia are protozoa, which are single-celled organisms. They are not worms, and deworming medications do not remove coccidia. Different species of coccidia infect different animals. Coccidia that infect dogs and cats are in the genus Isospora. Other types of coccidia infect other mammals (including humans), birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians. Unlike some parasites, coccidia that infect dogs and cats are not contagious to humans. Coccidia are host specific: they cause disease only in their own host species, not in animals of other species. Dogs with coccidia spread the disease to other dogs but not to cats or humans. Cats with coccidia spread the disease only to other cats. Transmission Coccidia that infect dogs and cats are transmitted through feces. Dogs and cats are usually infected by swallowing contaminated soil or other contaminated substances in the environment. They can also be infected by eating a small animal (like a rodent or insect) that serves as a transport host or vector for Isospora organisms. Coccidia in the feces are not infective right away. The life stage that passes out of the body in the stool is immature (nonsporulated). After a few hours in the environment, this stage matures to the sporulated stage, which can infect other animals. Sporulated coccidia can survive in the environment for a year.[1] Symptoms After sporulated coccidia are swallowed, they release other stages that invade cells of the intestines. Damage to the intestinal cells is responsible for the symptoms. Puppies, kittens, and adult animals with compromised immune systems are at most risk for serious illness. These are some of the symptoms:
Diagnosis Coccidia are diagnosed by examining a sample of feces under a microscope. Sometimes infected animals have false-negative test results (no coccidia seen even though the animal is infected), so animals with symptoms might need repeated fecal tests to diagnose the cause of illness. Coccidia can also be found in the feces of animals with no symptoms. Treatment Coccidia infection is treated with medication from a veterinarian. Complete treatment may take a few days or a few weeks, depending on the severity of infection. Sanitation of the environment reduces the chance of reinfection during treatment, especially for animals in group housing. Medications that remove hookworms, roundworms, and other common dog and cat parasites do not affect coccidia. Heartworm, flea, and tick preventives also do not remove or prevent coccidia. Prevention Because coccidia in stool aren’t infective for a few hours, removing feces from the environment regularly (at least once a day) helps prevent infection. Keeping cats indoors reduces or eliminates their exposure risk. Preventing dogs and cats from hunting rodents and other animals also reduces their chance of infection from transport hosts. All dogs and cats—and especially puppies and kittens—should have periodic fecal tests by a veterinarian. Reference 1. Coccidia. Companion Animal Parasite Council. Updated October 1, 2016. Accessed February 19, 2021. https://capcvet.org/guidelines/coccidia/ Photo by David Clarke Laurie Anne Walden, DVM  Whipworms are intestinal parasites that are relatively common in dogs and can cause serious illness. Some (not all) monthly heartworm preventives prevent whipworm infection.
Canine whipworms are small worms about 2 to 3 inches long that live in the cecum, a pouchlike structure attached to the large intestine. The whipworm that infects dogs, Trichuris vulpis, does not infect humans. (Another species of whipworm can infect people.) Whipworms are very rare in cats in North America. According to the Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC), almost 50,000 dogs in the United States tested positive for whipworms in 2019. About 2500 of these dogs were in North Carolina, putting North Carolina in the CAPC high-risk category for whipworms.[1] Transmission Dogs are infected with whipworms when they swallow whipworm eggs in the environment—for example, by licking dirt from their feet.[2] The eggs hatch in the dog’s intestines and grow to adult worms in the cecum. About 2.5 to 3 months after the dog is infected, the adult worms begin producing eggs that pass out of the body in the feces. Whipworm eggs in the environment take about 2 to 3 weeks (or longer) to develop into a stage that can infect dogs. This means that dogs are infected by swallowing contaminated substances, not by eating fresh dog poop. Whipworm eggs in the environment are resistant to temperature changes and sunlight and are able to infect dogs for years.[3] Symptoms Symptoms of whipworm infection depend partly on the number of worms present and can include the following:
Diagnosis Whipworm infection can be a little tricky to diagnose. Typical fecal analysis at a veterinary clinic involves looking for worm eggs in a stool sample under a microscope. However, because whipworms don’t produce eggs for the first few months after infection and they don’t produce eggs all of the time, stool analysis with a microscope can miss the infection. Sending a fecal sample to a diagnostic laboratory for a whipworm antigen test can increase the chance of finding the infection. Treatment and Prevention Antiparasitic drugs to treat whipworm infection are typically given in at least 2 doses spaced a few weeks apart. Monthly heartworm preventives that contain milbemycin (given by mouth) or moxidectin (applied to the skin) will treat and prevent whipworm infection.[3] Other heartworm preventives available at the time of writing (May 2020) are not effective against whipworms. It’s not possible to completely eliminate whipworm eggs that are already in the environment. The CAPC recommends reducing dogs’ risk by removing dog feces from the environment and regularly testing dogs for whipworms. References 1. Parasite prevalence map: 2019, whipworm, dog, United States. Companion Animal Parasite Council. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://capcvet.org/maps/#2019/all/whipworm/dog/united-states/ 2. Brooks W. Whipworm infection in dogs and cats. Veterinary Partner. Published May 8, 2004. Updated July 18, 2018. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://veterinarypartner.vin.com/doc/?id=4952061&pid=19239 3. Trichuris vulpis. Companion Animal Parasite Council. Updated October 1, 2016. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://capcvet.org/guidelines/trichuris-vulpis/ Image: photomicrograph of Trichuris vulpis egg, 400× magnification. Credit: CDC/Dr Mae Melvin. Laurie Anne Walden, DVM  Fleas don’t just cause itching. They also carry infectious diseases that can be contagious to people. Controlling fleas on your pets protects your whole family’s health.
Tapeworms Tapeworms are parasites that live in the intestines. They shed small body segments called proglottids that pass out of the host animal’s body in the feces. Tapeworm segments in the stool look like whitish rice grains. Fleas transmit a type of tapeworm that commonly infects dogs and cats. Dogs and cats become infected by swallowing a flea. Tapeworms rarely cause significant disease in dogs and cats. The dog and cat tapeworm that is carried by fleas, Dipylidium caninum, can also infect humans (usually children) who swallow a flea.[1] Bartonellosis (Cat Scratch Disease) Bartonella species are bacteria that cause a variety of diseases in humans and other animals. Cat scratch disease and endocarditis (heart valve infection) are just 2 of the serious illnesses caused by Bartonella infection.[2] Fleas are the most common insect vector for Bartonella henselae, the species that causes cat scratch disease.[3] Fleas can also carry other Bartonella species. Infected cats and dogs might or might not have any symptoms of infection. Bartonellosis is a human health risk. Treating your cat with a cat-safe flea preventive reduces the risk of cat scratch disease for people in contact with your cat. Rickettsial Diseases Rickettsiae are a group of bacteria responsible for diseases such as typhus and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Rickettsiae are spread by arthropods, including fleas and ticks. The types of fleas that infest dogs and cats transmit Rickettsia typhi (which causes murine typhus) and Rickettsia felis. Both of these bacteria can also cause disease in people.[1,4] Yersiniosis (Plague) Plague, including bubonic plague and the Black Death, is caused by infection with the bacterium Yersinia pestis. The Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) transmits the bacterium usually to rodents but sometimes to cats, dogs, other animals, and humans. Rat fleas in the western United States and other parts of the world still harbor Yersinia.[3] Mycoplasma Infection Cats infected with certain types of Mycoplasma bacteria develop anemia (low red blood cell count). Fleas are thought to be a source of infection for cats.[5] Noninfectious Diseases Fleas cause skin disease in animals that scratch or chew themselves to relieve the itch. Just a few fleas can set off intense itching in an animal with a flea allergy. Because fleas feed on blood, animals with lots of fleas can develop anemia from blood loss. This anemia can be life threatening. References 1. Fleas. Companion Animal Parasite Council website. https://capcvet.org/guidelines/fleas/. Updated September 19, 2017. Accessed May 7, 2019. 2. Bartonella infection (cat scratch disease, trench fever, and Carrión’s disease). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. https://www.cdc.gov/bartonella/index.html. Updated December 14, 2015. Accessed May 7, 2019. 3. Shaw SE. Flea-transmitted infections of cats and dogs. World Small Animal Veterinary Association World Congress Proceedings, 2008. Veterinary Information Network website. https://www.vin.com/doc/?id=3866578. Accessed May 7, 2019. 4. Little SE. Feline fleas and flea-borne disease (proceedings). DVM360 website. http://veterinarycalendar.dvm360.com/feline-fleas-and-flea-borne-disease-proceedings. Published April 1, 2010. Accessed May 7, 2019. 5. Lappin MR. Update on flea and tick associated diseases of cats. Vet Parasitol. 2018;254:26-29. Photo of Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) by James Gathany, CDC |
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The contents of this blog are for information only and should not substitute for advice from a veterinarian who has examined the animal. All blog content is copyrighted by Mallard Creek Animal Hospital and may not be copied, reproduced, transmitted, or distributed without permission.
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